The topic of Ghazwa-e-Hind (Expedition/Conquest of India) holds significant interest among Muslims, often linked to prophecies foretelling future events. This article delves into the prophetic narrations and traces the historical journey of Muslim involvement in the Indian subcontinent, distinguishing between prophetic foresight and historical reality.
Prophetic Narrations on Ghazwa-e-Hind
There are approximately five narrations concerning Ghazwa-e-Hind. The two primary ones are found in Sunan An-Nasai, which is considered the third most authentic Hadith compilation among the Kutub As-Sittah (The Six Books).
Narration 1: The Promise of Invasion and Martyrdom
Abu Hurairah (رضي الله عنه) reported: "The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) promised that we would invade India. If I live to see that, I will sacrifice myself and my wealth. If I am killed, I will be one of the best of the martyrs, and if I come back, I will be Abu Hurairah Al-Muharrar (the freed one)."[Narrated by An-Nasai and Ahmad]
The isnad (chain of narration) for this Hadith is from Jabr or Jibr ibn ‘Ubaydah, from Abu Hurairah. However, Jibr ibn Ubaydah is considered an unknown narrator (majhul) and is not known to have transmitted any other narrations in major Hadith collections apart from this one. This weakness in the chain renders this particular narration da'eef (weak).
Narration 2: The Expedition to Sindh and India
In another version from Abu Hurairah (رضي الله عنه), he said: "My close friend, the truthful one, the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) told me, 'Among this Ummah there will be an expedition to Sindh and India.' If I live to see it and am martyred, all well and good, and if I – and he said some word – return, I am Abu Hurairah the freed, I will be ransomed from the Fire."[Narrated by An-Nasai and Ahmad]
The isnad for this version is al-Bara’ ibn ‘Abdullah al-Ghanawi, from al-Hasan al-Basri, from Abu Hurairah. There is a break in the isnad (inqita') between Imam Hasan al-Basri and Abu Hurairah. Historical records indicate that Imam Hasan al-Basri was not able to meet Abu Hurairah (رضي الله عنه) in Madinah before Abu Hurairah's passing. This inqita' also makes this narration da'eef (weak).
Narration 3: Strengthening the Narration
In yet another version, Abu Hurairah (رضي الله عنه) said: "The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) promised that we would invade India. If I live to see that I will sacrifice myself and my wealth. If I am killed, I will be one of the best of the martyrs, and if I come back, I will be Abu Hurairah Al-Muharrar."[Found in Kitab al-Jihad by Imam Ibn Abi ‘Aasim]
This third isnad is Hashim ibn Sa‘eed, from Kinanah ibn Nabih, from Abu Hurairah. The presence of this additional chain, despite individual weaknesses, raises the overall grading of the narration from Da'eef (weak) to Hasan li Ghayrihi (good due to external corroboration), meaning it is acceptable for general reference and encouragement, though not at the highest level of authenticity.
Narration on Deliverance from Hellfire
It was narrated that Thawban (رضي الله عنه), the freed slave of the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ), said: "The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said, 'There are two groups of my Ummah whom Allah will free from the Fire: The group that invades India, and the group that will be with 'Isa bin Maryam (peace be upon him).'"[Narrated by An-Nasai and Ahmad]
Significantly, both chains for this Hadith from Thawban (رضي الله عنه) are graded as Hasan (good/authentic), making it a stronger and more reliable narration regarding the spiritual reward associated with the conquest of India. This is the most authentic narration overall that we have on the topic.
Scholarly Interpretation of Ghazwa-e-Hind:
Regarding the exact fulfillment of these prophecies, Sheikh Hammud at-Tuwaijri (رحمه الله) concluded:
"What is mentioned in the Hadith of Abu Hurayrah which was narrated by Na‘eem ibn Hammad, about the Conquest of India has not happened up till now, but it will happen when Isa ibn Maryam (peace be upon him) descends, if the Hadith that says that is saheeh. And Allah knows best."[Ithaaf al-Jama‘ah]
Historical Muslim Involvement in India
While the precise nature of Ghazwa-e-Hind remains a subject of eschatological discussion, Muslim expeditions into the Indian subcontinent began much earlier, evolving from reconnaissance to sustained rule.
Early Incursions (Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates):
- During the reign of Umar al-Faruq (رضي الله عنه): Expeditions to the Indian frontier commenced with exploratory incursions, often referred to as "sariyas" (smaller detachments), sent to assess the region.
- During the reign of Uthman ibn Affan (رضي الله عنه): These scouting missions continued, primarily focusing on coastal areas and the region of Sindh.
- During the reign of Ali ibn Abi Talib (رضي الله عنه): Harith ibn Murrah (رضي الله عنه) launched an attack on India, achieving initial success. He was eventually martyred at Qahqān, a part of Sindh.
- Umayyad Period (from 44 AH): In 44 AH (c. 664 CE), Mu’awiyah (رضي الله عنه) appointed Ziyad ibn Abeeh as the powerful governor of Basrah, Khurasan, and Sistan. Under Ziyad’s command, ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Rabī’ah conquered Kabul, and its inhabitants reportedly embraced Islam. Shortly after, the renowned Arab commander Al-Muhallab ibn Abi Ṣufrah led campaigns via Merv to Kabul and Zabul, and upon reaching the frontier of India, he engaged in Jihad.
- Formal Propagation in Sindh (86 AH): In 86 AH (c. 705 CE), Al-Ḥajjaj ibn Yusuf dispatched Muhammad ibn Harun with a formidable army towards Makran, resulting in its conquest. From this point, the formal propagation of Islam also began in Sindh.
The First Large-Scale Invasion: Muhammad ibn Qasim (c. 711-715 CE / 93-96 AH):The Chach Nama, also known as the Fateh Nama Sindh, is one of the earliest and most crucial historical works documenting the first large-scale Muslim invasion of India (specifically Sindh). This significant campaign was led by the young Umayyad general, Muhammad ibn Qasim al-Thaqafi, in 93 AH (c. 711 CE). The invasion was primarily prompted by Raja Dahir (the Hindu ruler of Sindh) failing to address the plunder of Arab ships by pirates from Debal (a port city in Sindh) and the continued detention of Muslim women and children.
Ibn Qasim's rule in Sindh was marked by a policy of relative religious tolerance. Local populations, including Hindus and Buddhists, were often granted dhimmi (protected status) upon paying jizya (poll tax) and were permitted to practice their religions, with many local administrative structures left intact. However, his successful tenure was abruptly cut short when he was recalled by the new Caliph, Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik, in 715 CE (96 AH), shortly after the death of his powerful patron, Hajjaj ibn Yusuf. Following Ibn Qasim's departure, Umayyad and later Abbasid governors continued to rule Sindh from their center at Mansura, though Baghdad's direct control over the distant province gradually weakened.
The Habbarid Dynasty (c. 854-1024 CE):As Abbasid central authority waned, local Arab dynasties began to assert autonomy. The Habbarids (Banu Habbar) emerged as one such dynasty, establishing a de facto independent rule in Sindh (centered around Mansura) for over 150 years. They acknowledged the Abbasid Caliph nominally but governed autonomously, fostering Islamic scholarship and trade in the region.
The Ghaznavid Era and Deeper Inroads into India:The Ghaznavids, a powerful Turkic dynasty that arose from Ghazni (present-day Afghanistan), were the next major Muslim power to exert significant and sustained influence deeper into India.
Imam Ibn Kathir (رحمه الله) recorded in his renowned work, Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah:
"The Muslims invaded India at the time of Mu‘awiyah, in 44 AH, and there occurred things which will be explained below. It was also invaded by the great ruler Mahmoud ibn Sabuktagin, the ruler of Ghaznah, who conquered India around 400 AH. He invaded the land, where he killed, took prisoners, and captured booty. He entered Somnath, where he broke the greatest idol that they used to worship, and he captured its swords and necklaces. Then he returned, safe and victorious."
Mahmud of Ghazni (ruled 998-1030 CE) is particularly famous for his approximately seventeen campaigns into Northern India between 1000 and 1027 CE. While his motivations are debated, his expeditions significantly weakened various Hindu kingdoms and enriched the Ghaznavid treasury. Critically, the Ghaznavids eventually annexed Punjab and established Lahore as a provincial capital, making it a crucial center of Islamic culture and learning. This marked the first substantial and continuous Muslim presence and administrative control in North India beyond Sindh.
Following the Ghaznavids, a succession of other Muslim dynasties rose to power, leading to the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate (comprising various dynasties like the Mamluks/Slave Dynasty, Khaljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids, and Lodis, from 1206 CE onwards). This era profoundly shaped the Indian subcontinent for centuries, culminating in the vast Mughal Empire (from 1526 CE), which expanded Muslim rule over much of India and left an indelible mark on its culture, art, architecture, and governance.
Interpretations of Ghazwa-e-Hind: As we've seen, most narrations on the topic of Ghazwa-e-Hind have elements of weakness in their chains. However, acknowledging their general meaning, scholars offer various interpretations on how these prophecies may have played out or will play out:
- Past Event (Basra/Kufah): Some scholars suggest that "Hind" in some narrations might refer to areas near Basra (modern-day Iraq) or the broader Persian frontier, implying that the prophecy was fulfilled during the early Muslim conquests of those regions, particularly during the Caliphate of Umar (رضي الله عنه).
- Past Events (Sindh to Ghaznavids): Another interpretation suggests that the prophecy was fulfilled through the historical entrance of Muhammad ibn Qasim into Sindh, followed by subsequent Muslim conquests that culminated with the Ghaznavid incursions and establishment of rule.
- Future Event (End Times): The most common contemporary interpretation is that the prophesied Ghazwa-e-Hind refers to a future, grand war near the end of times, possibly during the era of Prophet Isa (peace be upon him).
The Nature of Muslim Rule vs. British Colonialism:
A significant distinction is often drawn between the nature of Muslim rule in India and later British colonialism. Every time Muslims established significant power in India, they became Indian rulers. They generally integrated into the subcontinent's fabric, adopting local customs, languages, and establishing dynasties that considered India their permanent home. They built vast empires, established cities, developed new architectural styles (Indo-Islamic architecture), contributed to syncretic cultural traditions (like the emergence of the Urdu language), and often married into local populations. India reached its peak in terms of global economic share, holding an estimated 25% of the world's GDP around the early 18th century, before full British dominance.
In stark contrast, British rule was fundamentally extractive. By the time the British departed India in 1947, the country was severely depleted, with its share of global GDP plummeting to a mere 3-4%. The very word "loot" entered the English language from the Hindi "lut," signifying the plunder of India's wealth. For centuries prior, Muslims and various Hindu kingdoms had coexisted and engaged in political conflicts, but large-scale communal religious clashes were rare. It was largely under British rule that, for the first time, a deliberate Hindu vs. Muslim divide was engineered as a tool of governance. This was the genesis of communal strife in Indian history, as the British adeptly applied their age-old formula of "divide and rule," a seed that, unfortunately, continues to bear bitter fruit to this day.
